Dictionary of Armenian Tombstone Art Symbols

According to Hamlet Petrosyan, for many years the object depicted as a pnakit (a type of writing board) held by the figure of the "scholar" was interpreted by experts as a "mirror," while the pen case–inkwell was thought to be a "double-pipe flute".

In fact, the pnakit was a small rectangular wooden board to which paper was attached, used by beginners to learn the alphabet. Interestingly, the image of the pnakit was common not only in tombstone sculpture but also appears in miniature painting.

As a rule, the "scholar" is depicted as a young boy with long braids or locks of hair, holding the pnakit in one hand. Sometimes inscriptions are carved on the pnakit, indicating the year of the deceased's death or simply the name of the sculptor.

Among the attributes of the "student" figure, the book or pnakit symbolized the ledger of life, where the good and evil deeds of the deceased were recorded, deeds for which they would stand before the Final Judgment.

The Eternal Banquet scene is sometimes supplemented with the image of an armored horseman, either mounted on a horse or by depicting only the horse itself. The deceased, seated at the table, is often shown in a cross-legged position.

According to various scholars, the Eternal Banquet scene may convey three core ideas:

During funerary meals, bread played a dual role, as both a protective charm against evil and as nourishment for the soul. To prevent evil spirits from approaching, bread was placed on the chest of the deceased, and a sacramental morsel (nshkhar) was placed in their mouth.

In the writings of Vardan Hatsuni, we read that wine was poured onto the ground or the grave in memory of the deceased. He notes that this custom persisted even during the time of Tatevatsi (14-15th centuries) and adds that it was inherited from pagan practices.

Paired, often intertwined vishaps (dragons) are depicted separately and symbolically carry the meaning of protecting the tomb of the deceased from demonic and evil forces. With this protective function, depictions of vishaps also appear in the ornamentation of fortresses and churches.

The idealized deceased is often depicted slaying a dragon, evoking the iconography of mounted saints, alongside their attributed roles as saviors and protectors. The wounded vishaps, writhing beneath the horse's hooves, symbolize evil, hell, or the devil.

Unlike manuscript art, tombstone sculpture with such imagery emphasizes a more secular context, often enriched with elements like wine jugs, goblets, banquet tables, and other earthly details. In this framework, the deceased triumphs over death either through feasting or combat, securing personal immortality.

In art history, the eagle is often interpreted as a symbol of death, power, or spiritual transformation. The motif of the eagle clutching its prey spread throughout the Eastern Christian world during the post-iconoclastic period.

In medieval Armenian literature and later hayrens (Armenian medieval folk poetry), the prey is identified with the deceased, whose soul is carried by an eagle-angel toward the Divine.

According to some interpretations, the eagle is a transformed angel who descends at the Second Coming to snatch and carry the resurrected deceased to the heavenly kingdom. The eagle carvings found on the walls of Armenian churches from the 11th to 14th centuries are not heraldic emblems but salvific symbols.

The horse was a sacred animal in ancient Armenia, closely associated with the worship of the sun. This deeply rooted tradition remained strong in early medieval Armenia and continued into the high Middle Ages (10th–13th centuries).

In funerary rites, the horse was sacrificed as a companion and servant for the afterlife, while also serving as a solar offering, specifically, a sacrifice to the solar deity Mihr.

Beyond being a sacred creature, the horse also symbolized the noble life and heroic deeds of warriors, as it was the animal that accompanied them in battle and hunting. This role is frequently reflected in tombstone reliefs.

When discussing the salvific arrival of the Cross, H. Petrosyan writes that the cross was associated with Christ's Second Coming. It was believed to have the power to unlock graves and "awaken" the deceased.

In the context of salvation, the cross watches over graves, protects the departed until the Second Coming, guides them toward the Last Judgment, and intercedes on their behalf during that judgment. Grigor Tatevatsi also affirms this belief, writing that the cross "seals and guards every grave."

The word khoran is primarily associated with the altar or sanctuary section of a church. However, it can also mean a celestial dome, arch, vaulted chamber, room, church, or tent.

Thus, khoran was also connected with the idea of the church as the house of God. It is no coincidence that in 18th–19th century tombstones, crosses enclosed in altar-like frames were gradually replaced by miniature models of churches.